Research on Beliefs about Global Climate Change / Al Gore

I would appreciate your help with an academic survey of beliefs about Al Gore and Global Climate Change.

It does not matter if you are a believer in global warming or a skeptic of global warming.

Here's the survey link:

http://www.geocities.com/dawagnersjca/short.html

Be sure to read the notice on the first page.

Thanks for your help. Please let me know if you have any questions.

Spoiler Candidacies Revisited

H. Ross Perot, a successful businessman, mounted an interesting but unsuccessful bid for the Presidency of the United States in 1992 under the banner of the Reform Party. Perot garnered 19 percent of the popular vote but failed to carry the electoral votes from any state. The influence of the Reform party is atypical among American political parties though, with most having far less popular support.

Third parties or minority parties have historically been one of four types (Janda, Berry, & Goldman, 1995): (1) Bolter parties splitting from the Democratic or Republican parties; (2) Farmer-labor parties representing working class individuals who feel they are not getting their fair share; (3) Ideological protest parties criticizing the established system; (4) Single issue parties seeking to promote an issue rather than new government philosophy.

Most American voters are loyal to either the Republican or Democratic parties, making it virtually impossible for an third, minority party candidate to win. Notwithstanding, third party movements such as Perot’s Reform party provide a means of expression for potential voters who are disenchanted with either major party. Moreover, expression of alternate platforms and agenda for government policymaking is what third-parties do best.

The Reform Party, which was essentially an ideological protest party, affected the platforms of the Democratic and Republican parties by drawing attention to important, overlooked issues such as the need for a balanced budget and ending government waste. In the future, third party platforms such as the Reform party will continue to have populist influence on the two major parties. Other important third-party challenges can be found in the Constitution, Libertarian, and Green parties.

Reference

Janda, K., Berry, J.M., & Goldman, J. (1995) The challenge of democracy: Government in America, (4th Ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Improving Government Responsiveness to Public Opinion

In the majoritarian model of democracy, the government is made responsive to public opinion through political parties according to the model of responsible party government by addressing the following issues (Janda, Berry, & Goldman, 1995): (1) Parties should present clear and coherent programs to voters; (2) Voters should choose candidates on the basis of party programs; (3) The winning party should carry out its program in office; (4) Voters should hold the governing party responsible at the next election for executing its program.

Examining how well an American political party meets the above tests of responsible party government yields a mixed review. When candidates are running for office, programs are presented to voters in a clear fashion. However, voters often choose the candidate based on some personal characteristics instead of solely upon the programs supported by that candidate’s party. When elected to power, American political parties do tend to shape government policy according to their party platforms.

What party should be held accountable as being in power if the Democratic Party controls the House of Representatives, the Republican Party controls the Senate and a Republican President sits in the Oval Office? Some evidence suggests that many voters purposely split the ticket between the presidential, congressional and senatorial candidates, so is majoritarianism still served in such as case? No, the American model of democracy is more pluralist than majoritarian, because it does not completely meet the tests of responsible party government.

Several reforms could be enacted to bring America’s two political parties closer to responsible party government. First, at the present time, campaigns are highly-personalized to the candidates being elected and conducted outside the control of party organizations. To improve the majoritarian nature of American democracy, the connections between candidates and voters needs to be strengthened during the process of campaigns and elections. Second, party identification has weakened over the years. A strengthening of the value and importance of party membership between elections could improve the link between voters, parties, and candidates. Third, the tie between candidate and party is loosely defined at the national level and almost non-existent for the Senate and House elections. Candidates for national office could relate their positions to national party platforms more clearly. Finally, national party leadership could take a more active role in helping local candidates who are affiliated with the party get elected.

These are but a few of the ways that the responsible party model of government and the majoritarian nature of our democracy could be improved.

Reference

Janda, K., Berry, J.M., & Goldman, J. (1995) The challenge of democracy: Government in America, (4th Ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Understanding Null and Alternative Hypotheses

Is Grandma's Freezer Cold? (Understanding Null and Alternative Hypotheses)

When approaching business research, managers are sometimes confused by the concepts of the null and alternative hypotheses. The concepts are incredibly useful though, when the decision can be framed as a binary choice.

The null hypothesis embodies the condition that nothing has changed. For example, if we wished to learn if deep freezers were cold inside, we could think of the research in terms of null and alternative hypotheses.

The null hypothesis would be that the freezer in our sample is cold inside, which would be the normal condition. The alternative hypothesis would be that the freezer in our sample is not cold.

Therefore, to draw our sample, we walk up to Grandma's deep freezer, open the door, and stick our hand inside. Yes, Grandma's plugged in freezer is cold inside.

Internal validity, which means that what we saw what we thought we saw, is supported because we sensed that the freezer was cold with our own hands.

External validity is good in this case, which means that we can project our sample on the population of freezers that are plugged in (i.e., we did not check air conditioners, tap water, or ovens, but a freezer).

Construct validity, which is the theoretical background of measuring the temperature of freezers by sticking your hand in them, is supported because we have stuck our hand in all sorts of places to ascertain temperature before.

Conclusion validity, or support derived from statistically drawing a conclusion about all freezers from our sample of one, is not very good because our sample is very small.

American Public Opinion and Government Stability

Public opinion both shapes and is shaped by American government policy. Five characteristics of public opinion help explain how this symbiosis contributes to stability (Janda, Berry, & Goldman, 1995): (1) Public opinion about policy can change over time; (2) Public opinion defines the contours of acceptable public policy; (3) Public opinion embodies inaccurate views because citizens are willing to provide opinions to pollsters on unfamiliar subjects; (4) Government tends to respond to public opinion; (5) Government policy does not always immediately reflect public opinion. In sum, while government does not always do exactly what the population says it wants, it does listen to public opinion and adjusts policymaking efforts accordingly over time, when practicable.

Reference

Janda, K., Berry, J.M., & Goldman, J. (1995) The challenge of democracy: Government in America, (4th Ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Professional Marketing Practice: the Professional Certified Marketer (PCM) Designation

Over six years ago, the American Marketing Association (AMA) established a program for certifying marketers entitled the Professional Certified Marketer (PCM) designation. I earned this designation in 2002, but have since gone inactive, due to limitations in how much my company and the University will reimburse for professional association dues. Recently, I was contacted by the leaders of a PCM group that is forming on LinkedIn.com

The rationale behind the PCM is that individuals who have dedicated their careers to marketing and have mastered an appropriate body of knowledge deserve recognition. Moreover, the public at large should benefit from a higher level of professionalism by those who dispense marketing advice. Certification supports the notion that there is a body of knowledge that should be mastered by those who practice marketing as a career. Certification may seem pretentious to some, but it is in line with other professions that have sought to raise the threshold for those who would practice in the profession.

For MBAs who are active in marketing roles, it is particularly interesting because just as AMA members must agree to abide by a code of ethics so must PCM holders (whether they are AMA members or not). A copy of the AMA code of ethics can be found here: http://www.marketingpower.com/content435.php An AMA member who violates this code of ethics can be expelled from the Association and any PCM holder can have their certification revoked. It is important to note that the marketing profession is attempting to police unethical practices within its ranks and raise the general level of professionalism of marketers.

With regard to the PCM exam and the marketing profession, a standard principles of marketing will be helpful for exam preparation. Anyone who has an appropriate Bachelor's degree and four years of documented experience or an appropriate Master's degree and two years of documented experience may sit for the PCM exam. The PCM exam is a 5 hour long, 240 question test that covers the following subject matter, which happens to parallel much of the material that we will be discussing in a standard principles of marketing course:

1. Legal, Ethical and Professional Issues in Marketing
1.1 Comply with appropriate regulations, laws and guidelines affecting marketing
1.2 Adhere to applicable ethical codes
1.3 Engage in ongoing professional development to advance competence and practice
2. Relationship, Information and Resource Management
2.1 Set priorities, allocate organizational resources and establish information channels linking departments, disciplines, and/or branch offices regarding marketplace, consumers, and competitors
2.2 Establish and manage internal and external relationships with appropriate/relevant stakeholders to support/facilitate marketing efforts
3. Assessment and Planning of the Strategic Marketing Process
3.1 Conduct environmental analyses by identifying industry trends, analyzing competitors, assessing own organization and researching the customer in order to evaluate a marketing situation and guide strategy development/selection.
3.2 Conduct market research to collect data related to environmental scans, demand forecasts, market segmentation, new product testing, etc. to guide/support marketing strategy development/selection
3.3 Develop a market-product focus by setting marketing objectives (based on marketing and product), segmenting the market, identifying target segment(s), and positioning the product, good, or service
4. Use of the Marketing Mix
4.1 Develop strategies to introduce a new product to a market based on product characteristics, market information and corporate objectives
4.2 Identify appropriate direct marketing promotional strategies (personal selling, advertising, sales promotion, publicity, etc.) to achieve marketing goals
4.3 Develop appropriate retail/wholesale "place" strategies (channel of distribution, store location, etc.) to achieve marketing objectives.
4.4 Develop appropriate pricing strategies (actual price, sale price, MSRP, etc.) by analyzing demand, cost and profit relationships to realize pricing/profitability goals and marketing objectives.
5. Marketing Evaluation
5.1 Monitor and evaluate effectiveness of marketing process(es), programs and outcomes

I recommend the PCM designation for those who are active in marketing, because it is gaining ground as a credential that filters those who have prepared for general marketing management roles from those who have not. Moreover, the designation is not difficult to attain for those who practice marketing and have done well in a rigorous principles of marketing course. For more information on the Professional Certified Marketer (PCM) exam, visit the link below in the references.

Reference

http://www.marketingpower.com/content591.php

Factors of Political Opinion Formation

Ideological orientation is an important factor in forming political opinions, but how do ordinary citizens, who have not developed a consistent set of political attitudes and beliefs, form opinions? Beyond ideological orientation, other factors help shape public opinion: an individual’s own self-interest, a comprehended set of political information, a series of opinion schemas, and the influence of political leadership (Janda, Berry, & Goldman, 1995).

When individuals might benefit or suffer from a particular government policy, they generally respond in terms of their own best interest, unless they feel that acting in one’s self-interest is immoral. Many citizens have no clear opinions on issues that do not affect them personally.

When individuals lack understanding on a political issue, they tend to respond with an opinion based on the latest information received, which can cause polls to fluctuate. Political information obtained through the mass media and filtered through an individual’s political socialization can produce a wide variety of opinions. However, lack of political information does not inhibit most individuals from expressing an opinion.

Various facts, images and perceptions can be mapped into what is called an opinion schema, which can be used as a proxy for a formal political ideology and serve as a guide for forming an opinion on a specific issue, while the opinion is still influenced by an overarching political ideology. These schemas are a means of understanding the images, connections, and values that people attribute to a subject.

Finally, in the absence of specific information, citizens can be swayed for or against a government policy by highly influential political leaders. Public opinion is often more often shaped by the personalities in government via the mass media than a force that actually shapes the government.

Reference

Janda, K., Berry, J.M., & Goldman, J. (1995) The challenge of democracy: Government in America, (4th Ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.